Developmental stage of life and age also appear to effect the response to stressors.
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Children exposed to physical and/or psychosocial maltreat- ment have been shown to have smaller cortices in the prefrontal region of the brain, higher cortisol levels, and elevated levels of inflammation in comparison to other children. Many of these changes persist into adulthood. Additionally, infants whose mothers were depressed or anxious during pregnancy displayed higher cortisol levels in response to stressors. These studies demonstrate the vulnerability to stressors of brain development extending from the prenatal period through adolescence.
Risk factors alone are not inherently stressors, but rather conditions or situations that increase the likelihood of encountering or experiencing a stressor. Using a mobile phone to send text messages while driving is a risk factor for having a motor vehicle accident; running in the dark is a risk factor for falling; and inadequate immunization is a risk factor for certain infectious illnesses. Low SES is a risk factor for exposure to lead and air pollutants in the home and neighborhood. Risk factors also include genetic predisposition and epigenetic factors, as well as adverse early life experiences. By being aware of risk factors, it is possible to decrease the probability of exposure to certain stressors and the associated threat to homeostasis.
KEY POINTS • Stress is a real or perceived threat to the balance of homeostasis. The
stress response is designed to restore balance. • Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS) theory reflects the view of a non-
specific physiologic response to stress. It incorporates three stages indicating the changes in the body’s systemic response: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
• Stressors are agents or conditions capable of producing stress. • The body’s response to stressors is meant to be helpful, at least initially,
in terms of mobilizing resources to help manage stressors. • Response to a stressor depends on its magnitude and the meaning that the
stressor has for an individual. Perception of the stressfulness of a stressor depends on genetic constitution, gender, past experiences and conditioning, and social and cultural influences. Stressors may be external or internal. They may be physical, chemical, biological, sociocultural, or psychological.
• Individuals may be more vulnerable to the effects of stressors at certain times including developmental stage of life, the availability of resources, and the effects of other previous or concurrent stressors.
• Risk factors are conditions or situations that increase the likelihood of encountering or experiencing a stressor.