Chronic irritation of epithelial cells often results in hyperplasia.
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Calluses and corns, for example, result from chronic frictional injury to the skin. The epithelium of the bladder commonly becomes hyper- plastic in response to the chronic inflammation of cystitis.
Metaplasia Metaplasia is the replacement of one differentiated cell type with another. This most often occurs as an adaptation to persistent injury, with the replacement cell type better able to tolerate the injurious stimulation. Metaplasia is fully reversible when the injurious stimulus is removed. Metaplasia often involves the replacement of glandular epithelium with squamous epithelium. Chronic irritation of the bronchial mucosa by cigarette smoke, for example, leads to the conversion of ciliated columnar epithelium to stratified squamous epithelium. Metaplastic cells generally remain well differentiated and of the same tissue type, although cancerous
CELLULAR ADAPTATION The cellular response to persistent, sublethal stress reflects the cell’s efforts to adapt. Cellular stress may be due to an increased functional demand or a reversible cellular injury. Although the term adaptation implies a change for the better, in some instances an adaptive change may not be beneficial. The common adaptive responses are atrophy (decreased cell size), hypertrophy (increased cell size), hyperplasia (increased cell number), metaplasia (conversion of one cell type to another), and dysplasia (disorderly growth) (Fig. 4.6). Each of these changes is potentially reversible when the cellular stress is relieved.
Atrophy Atrophy occurs when cells shrink and reduce their differentiated functions in response to a variety of normal and injurious factors. The general causes of atrophy may be summarized as (1) disuse, (2) denervation, (3) ischemia, (4) nutrient starvation, (5) interruption of endocrine signals, (6) and persistent cell injury. Apparently, atrophy represents an effort by the cell to minimize its energy and nutrient consumption by decreasing the number of intracellular organelles and other structures.
A common form of atrophy is the result of a reduction in functional demand, sometimes called disuse atrophy. For example, immobilization by bed rest or casting of an extremity results in shrinkage of skeletal muscle cells. On resumption of activity, the tissue resumes its normal size. Denervation of skeletal muscle results in a similar decrease in muscle size caused by loss of nervous stimulation. Inadequate blood supply to a tissue is known as ischemia. If the blood supply is totally interrupted, the cells will die, but chronic sublethal ischemia usually results in cell atrophy. The heart, brain, kidneys, and lower leg are common sites of ischemia. Atrophic changes in the lower leg attributable to ischemia include thin skin, muscle wasting, and hair loss. Atrophy can be a consequence of chronic nutrient starvation, whether the result of poor intake, absorption, or distribution to the tissues. Many glandular tissues throughout the body depend on growth-stimulating (trophic) signals to maintain size and function. For example, the adrenal cortex, thyroid, and gonads are maintained by trophic hormones from the pituitary gland and will atrophy in their absence. Atrophy that results from persistent cell injury is most commonly related to chronic inflam- mation and infection.